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“Define and evaluate the theories of long term and short term memories. 1000 words.”
1) Long term memory
Definition
The term long-term memory is somewhat of a catch-all phrase because it can refer to facts learned a few minutes ago, personal memories many decades old, or skills learned with practice. Generally, however, long-term memory describes a system in the brain that can store vast amounts of information on a relatively enduring basis.
Theories of Long Term Memory
General theories of memory, which are based on performance on memory tasks, incorporate constraints on storage and retrieval that are assumed to apply to any type of activity. When investigators began studying more complex cognitive processes, such as problem solving, decision making, and concept formation, the models they developed had to be consistent with these theories. An adequate model of performance in a task had to specify the relevant background knowledge and skills subjects had as well as sequences of processes that did not violate the constraints on the amount of information kept available in memory (that is, working memory).
In standard theories of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) information can be stored in LTM only after it has been stored in STM, and even then, storage in LTM is a probabilistic event. Originally, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that the probability of storage in LTM is a function of the time an item was maintained in STM. More recently, Anderson (1983) suggested that the probability of storage is a function of the number of times an item enters STM. Subjects' control of the storage of information appears to be limited, as shown, for example, by low levels of free recall in list learning. Furthermore, in more meaningful tasks subjects' recall of presented information is not improved when they are instructed to study that information for later recall (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). This finding implies that subjects cannot achieve reliable storage of information in many of the standard memory tasks. Anderson (1983) goes even so far as to argue that subjects' inability to control storage in LTM is beneficial since they cannot predict what information will be useful later on. The memory performance exhibited by subjects in standard memory tasks is clearly consistent with the view that storage of information in LTM and efficient access of that information is too unreliable to be an effective source of working memory. We argue later in this paper, however, that the performance of untrained subjects who memorize lists of unrelated items in the laboratory does not accurately describe the efficient storage and retrieval that experts in specific domains can achieve after many years of practice.
Newell and Simon (1972) proposed a production-system architecture for cognitive processes that has influenced most subsequent efforts to build models and theories. In this architecture the conditions of a large number of productions (condition-action pairs) are matched against the currently active elements (working memory). In more recent models, such as Anderson's (1983) ACT*, working memory is the transiently activated portion of LTM. The limits on the number of elements in working memory are not determined by a fixed number but rather by the amount of available activation. In his work on building ACT* models of cognitive processing Anderson found that working memory can sometimes contain over 20 units at one time. To reconcile such a large capacity of working memory with the much smaller capacity of STM, Anderson (1983) argued as follows: The activation of elements decays very rapidly. For this reason the number of units that can be actively maintained long enough to be included in immediate recall is much less than all of the information activated at the start of recall. Most investigators argue, however, that the capacity of working memory must be far greater than the capacity of traditional STM (Newell, 1990).
Working memory in production-system architectures was originally viewed as a single construct with general resources. In a very influential line of empirical research initiated by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), investigators examined this assertion by studying the effect on cognitive performance from an additional concurrent task specifically designed to interfere with the capacity of working memory. The result of over a decade's active research on that and related paradigms (reviewed by Baddeley, 1986) conflicted with the single-construct view. Although reliable decrements in speed and/or accuracy of cognitive processes were often obtained for the main task when an additional memory task was introduced, the primary task performance decreased for the most part only slightly even when subjects had to maintain 3 to 6 digits (near their digit span) in working memory while executing the primary task. To account for these findings Baddeley (1986) proposed that in addition to a central executive there are two slave systems, the articulatory loop and the visuo-spatial scratch pad, in which the central executive can store information temporarily. Investigators have obtained converging evidence for these subsystems by examining the relation between individual differences on the main task and on tasks measuring various types of memory performance. Of particular interest are findings from neuro-psychological patients who exhibit exceptionally poor performance on tasks that measure the capacity of one of the subsystems, for example, memory span for words which is assumed to measure the capacity of the articulatory loop. Consistent with the independence of the subsystems in Baddeley's model, patients with dramatically impaired subsystems are still able to perform text comprehension tasks at normal levels. At the same time this finding means that working memory in such skilled activities as text comprehension must be accounted for by the central executive and thus remains essentially unexplained.
In sum, recent research has shown that working memory does not consist of a single general capacity, but rather consists of several subsystems that can be relied on to complete various types of tasks (Baddeley, 1986).
From Microsoft Encarta:
“There seems to be no finite capacity to long-term memory. People can learn and retain new facts and skills throughout their lives. Although older adults may show a decline in certain capacities—for example, recalling recent events—they can still profit from experience even in old age. For example, vocabulary increases over the entire life span. The brain remains plastic and capable of new learning throughout one’s lifetime, at least under normal conditions. Certain neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, can greatly diminish the capacity for new learning. Psychologists once thought of long-term memory as a single system. Today, most researchers distinguish three long-term memory systems: episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory.
Episodic Memory
Episodic memory refers to memories of specific episodes in one’s life and is what most people think of as memory. Episodic memories are connected with a specific time and place. If you were asked to recount everything you did yesterday, you would rely on episodic memory to recall the events. Similarly, you would draw on episodic memory to describe a family vacation, the way you felt when you won an award, or the circumstances of a childhood accident. Episodic memory contains the personal, autobiographical details of our lives.
Semantic Memory
Semantic memory refers to our general knowledge of the world and all of the facts we know. Semantic memory allows a person to know that the chemical symbol for salt is NaCl, that dogs have four legs, that Thomas Jefferson was president of the United States, that 3 × 3 equals 9, and thousands of other facts. Semantic memories are not tied to the particular time and place of learning. For example, in order to remember that Thomas Jefferson was president, people do not have to recall the time and place that they first learned this fact. The knowledge transcends the original context in which it was learned. In this respect, semantic memory differs from episodic memory, which is closely related to time and place. Semantic memory also seems to have a different neural basis than episodic memory. Brain-damaged patients who have great difficulties remembering their own recent personal experiences often can access their permanent knowledge quite readily. Thus, episodic memory and semantic memory seem to represent independent capacities.
Procedural Memory
Procedural memory refers to the skills that humans possess. Tying shoelaces, riding a bicycle, swimming, and hitting a baseball are examples of procedural memory. Procedural memory is often contrasted with episodic and semantic memory. Episodic and semantic memory are both classified as types of declarative memory because people can consciously recall facts, events, and experiences and then verbally declare or describe their recollections. In contrast, nondeclarative, or procedural, memory is expressed through performance and typically does not require a conscious effort to recall.” http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761578303&pn=1#s2
Here is another summary on the selected theories of long-term memory from the psychology syllabus of CUNY: “THE STANDARD VIEW
Atkinson and Shiffrin's model
STM- temporary buffer- Information is in a "temporary state".
LTM- permanent store- Information in this system is in a "permanent state". Control processes- are operations that move information from STM to LTM. They include: rehearsal, coding, and imaging.
Tests of the model demonstrated that participants learned more when they focused on information that was in either an unlearned state (e.g., not in STM or LTM) or a temporary state (e.g., in STM) (Atkinson, 1972a, 1972b).
THE LEVELS OF PROCESSING APPROACH (LOP)
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model information is remembered if it makes it into LTM. The levels of processing view, is an attempt to specify what kinds of processes result in "good" memory and what kinds of processes result in "poor" memory. This emphasis is a departure from the standard view because the type of learning rather than the location of the information is stressed." http://www.lehman.cuny.edu/depts/psychology/sailor/cognition/ltm.html#standard
2) Short term memory
Definition
From the Academic Press:
“The part of the human memory system that stores information shortly after the material is presented; characterized by rapid decay and a limited capacity.” http://www.academicpress.com/inscight/12241997/short-t1.htm
Theories of Short Term Memory
Information Processing Theory
“George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to the information processing framework and cognitive psychology more generally. The first concept is `chunking' and the capacity of short term (working) memory. Miller (1956) presented the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any meaningful unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions, or people's faces. The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory. The second concept, that of information processing, uses the computer as a model for human learning. Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its form and content, stores and locates it and generates reponses to it. Thus, processing involves gathering and representing information, or encoding; holding information or retention; and getting at the information when needed, or retrieval. Information processing theorists approach learning primarily through a study of memory.” (Miller, 1956)
From Microsoft Encarta:
“Psychologists originally used the term short-term memory to refer to the ability to hold information in mind over a brief period of time. As conceptions of short-term memory expanded to include more than just the brief storage of information, psychologists created new terminology. The term working memory is now commonly used to refer to a broader system that both stores information briefly and allows manipulation and use of the stored information.
Psychologists often study working memory storage by examining how well people remember a list of items. In a typical experiment, people are presented with a series of words, one every few seconds. Then they are instructed to recall as many of the words as they can, in any order. Most people remember the words at the beginning and end of the series better than those in the middle. This phenomenon is called the serial position effect because the chance of recalling an item is related to its position in the series. The results from one such experiment are shown in the accompanying chart entitled “Serial Position Effect.” In this experiment, recall was tested either immediately after presentation of the list items or after 30 seconds. Subjects in both conditions demonstrated what is known as the primacy effect, which is better recall of the first few list items. Psychologists believe this effect occurs because people tend to process the first few items more than later items. Subjects in the immediate-recall condition also showed the recency effect, or better recall of the last items on the list. The recency effect occurs because people can store recently presented information temporarily in working memory. When the recall test is delayed for 30 seconds, however, the information in working memory fades, and the recency effect disappears.
Working memory has a basic limitation: It can hold only a limited amount of information at one time. Early research on short-term storage of information focused on memory span—how many items people can correctly recall in order. Researchers would show people increasingly long sequences of digits or letters and then ask them to recall as many of the items as they could. In 1956 American psychologist George Miller reviewed many experiments on memory span and concluded that people could hold an average of seven items in short-term memory. He referred to this limit as “the magical number seven, plus or minus two” because the results of the studies were so consistent. More recent studies have attempted to separate true storage capacity from processing capacity by using tests more complex than memory span. These studies have estimated a somewhat lower short-term storage capacity than did the earlier experiments. People can overcome such storage limitations by grouping information into chunks, or meaningful units.
Working memory is critical for mental work, or thinking. Suppose you are trying to solve the arithmetic problem 64 × 9 in your head. You probably would need to perform some intermediate calculations in your head before arriving at the final answer. The ability to carry out these kinds of calculations depends on working memory capacity, which varies individually. Studies have also shown that working memory changes with age. As children grow older, their working memory capacity increases. Working memory declines in old age and in some types of brain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease.
Working memory capacity is correlated with intelligence (as measured by intelligence tests). This correlation has led some psychologists to argue that working memory abilities are essentially those that underlie general intelligence. The more capacity people have to hold information in mind while they think, the more intelligent they are. In addition, research suggests that there are different types of working memory. For example, the ability to hold visual images in mind seems independent from the ability to retain verbal information." http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761578303&pn=1#s2
“Working memory , the more contemporary term for short-term memory, is conceptualised as an active system for temporarily storing and manipulating information needed in the execution of complex cognitive tasks (Baddeley 1986) (e.g., learning, reasoning, and comprehension). Experimental evidence has shown that the working memory is of limited size (Miller 1956), and hence, due to the high conceptual demands, complexity of laboratory experiments and potential information overload associated with problems solving, in both chemistry and physics, there are clear instructional implications.” http://dbweb.liv.ac.uk/ltsnpsc/AB/AB-html/node10.html
Articulatory Loop Theory of Working Memory from the University of Alberta: “The articulatory loop (AL) is one of two passive slave systems within Baddeley's (1986) tripartite model of working memory. The AL, responsible for storing speech based information, is comprised of two components. The first component is a phonological memory store which can hold traces of acoustic or speech based material. Material in this short term store lasts about two seconds unless it is maintained through the use of the second subcomponent, articulatory subvocal rehearsal. Prevention of articulatory rehearsal results in very rapid forgetting. Try this experiment with a friend. Present your friend with three consonants (e.g., C-X-Q) and ask them to recall the consonants after a 10 second delay. During the 10 second interval, prevent your friend from rehearsing the consonants by having them count 'backwards by threes' starting at 100. You will find that your friend's recall is significantly impaired! See Murdoch (1961) and Baddeley (1986) for a complete review.” http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/~mike/Pearl_Street/Dictionary/contents/A/articulatory_loop.html
Mechanisms of Working Memory from the Georgia Institute of Technology: “Given that working memory plays a key role in our ability to predict human performance, what do we know about how the human working memory system actually works? It turns out that several important mechanisms have been identified, such as: Decay. Items in working memory decay over time. That is, the longer it has been since an item was needed in working memory, the less likely it is that it is currently available. Displacement/interference. As new items enter into working memory, there are at least two repercussions in the rest of the system: other items tend to become harder to access and the cognitive system becomes less efficient, effectively slowing down. Basic processing speed. Partially as a result of attempting to determine what causes the age-related decline in working memory capacity, researchers have discovered that there is a strong link between simple processing speed and working memory capacity.” http://www.acm.org/sigchi/chi96/proceedings/doctoral/Byrne/mdb_txt.htm
Here are some excepts from a book entitled “Models of Working Memory”. It gives abstracts of current theories of working memory: “Working Memory - Multiple Component Model:
The authors' own definition of working memory is that it comprises those functional components of cognition that allow humans to comprehend and mentally represent their immediate environment, to retain information about their immediate past experience, to support the acquisition of new knowledge, to solve problems, and to formulate, relate, and act on current goals. Their theoretical approach has developed in the framework of working memory comprising multiple specialized subcomponents of cognition. Although the Baddeley-Logie model maintains the original tripartite structure proposed by A. D. Baddeley and G. J. Hitch (1974), it has undergone a number of important changes, particularly in regard to specifying functions of the central executive.
The Embedded Process Model:
This chapter presents the author's Embedded-Processes Model, a broad-scope information processing framework originally developed to synthesize a vast array of findings on attention and memory. The mnemonic functions preserving information that can be used to do the necessary work collectively make up working memory. This is a functional definition in that any processing mechanism contributing to the desired outcome are said to participate in the working memory system. In contrast, some researchers appear to prefer to define working memory according to the mechanism themselves. Though my framework has much in common with those of other researchers, a functional definition of working memory seems more likely to encourage a consideration of diverse relevant mechanisms. Some theories of working memory equate it to the focus of attention and awareness and some equate it to the sum of activated information. Often, the distinction between activation and awareness is left unclear, but I argue that the distinction is important and that working memory must involve both, and some long-term memory information as well.
The Soar Cognitive Architecture:
We examine the various phenomena of human working memory (WM) from a cognitive architecture of broad scope, the Soar architecture, which focuses on the functional capabilities needed for a memory system to support performance in a range of cognitive tasks. We argue for and demonstrate 3 points concerning the limitations of WM. 1. We show how the cognitive system, even with a limited-capacity short-term store, can handle complex tasks that require large quantities of information, by relying heavily on recognition-based long-term memory working in concert with the external environment. 2. We argue that limitations on WM arise even in purely functional cognitive systems built without preset capacity constraints, and hence that empirically demonstrated limitations of effective WM do not necessarily imply a capacity-constrained underlying memory system. 3. We show how a specific mechanism of similarity-based interference can act as a resource constraint on the cognitive system and offer a coherent account of a wide range of psycholinguistic phenomena.
Working memory in a multilevel hybrid connectionist control architecture (CAP2): In a connectionist control network, working memory is implemented via short-term activation and connection changes that support cognitive operations. The Controlled Automatic Processing version 2 (CAP2) approach is a model of skilled processing and learning. When applied to working memory the model instantiates multiple forms and mechanisms of working memory.... The chapter provides an interpretation of working memory based on biological, information-processing, and behavioral constraints. The chapter interrelates previously published themes, which include the distinction between controlled and automatic processing, the role of multileveled connectionist control structure in working memory, the use of that control structure to enable learning by instruction, attentional control, and the role of consciousness in the effective control of processing. Topics include (a) a brief review of physiological themes and mechanisms underlying working memory; (b) a detailed description of the CAP2; (c) some brief brain-imaging results about the changes that occur as skills is acquired; and (d) the conclusion with a discussion of the specific working memory questions, as well as a commentary about the other models presented in this volume.
A biologically based computational model of working memory:
This chapter presents a biologically based model of working memory. The authors' connectionist framework represents an attempt to start developing an explicit computational model of working memory and executive control that is biologically plausible and is firmly rooted in the principles of cognitive processing in the brain. This chapter brings studies of working memory into closer alignment with our rapidly expanding knowledge of its underlying biological and neural basis. We define working memory as controlled processing involving active maintenance and/or rapid learning, where controlled processing is an emergent property of the dynamic interactions of multiple brain systems, but the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HCMP) are especially influential owing to their specialized processing abilities and their privileged locations within the processing hierarchy (both the PFC and HCMP are well connected with a wide range of brain areas, allowing them to influence behavior at a global level).” http://cogweb.ucla.edu/index.html
Various theories on short term memory can be found here:
http://www.stehouwer.com/LearningOHch8.pdf
Here is a nice summary on working memory:
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/3041/workingmem.html
Richard Young of the University of Hertfordshire discusses the Soar Architecture of Working Memory here in this thorough document: http://phoenix.herts.ac.uk/pub/R.M.Young/publications/99.Young-Lewis.pdf
Randall O’Reilly of the University of Colorado discusses the Biologically Based Computational Model of Working Memory here in this thorough document: http://psych.colorado.edu/~oreilly/papers/OReillyBraverCohen99.pdf
Please use any answer clarification before rating this answer. I will be happy to explain or expand on any issue you may have.
Thanks,
Kevin, M.D.
Internet search strategy:
Using FAST, Google, Inktomi and Teoma via Hotbot.com
1) “long term memory”
2) “short term memory”
3) “working memory”
4) all of the above AND theories
5) all of the above AND models
Bibliography:
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. Spence and J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation,(Vol. 2, pp. 89-195) . New York: Academic Press.
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Newell, A. (1990). Unified theories of cognition.Cambridge, Mass:, Harvard University Press.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation,(Vol. 8, pp. 47-90). New York: Academic Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. New York: Oxford University Press.
“Memory (psychology)," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2002
http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
Murdock, B.B. Jr. (1961). The retention of individual items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 618-625.
Links:
Theories of Long Term Memory
http://mailbox.univie.ac.at/~trimmem2/kogpsych_ws2001-2002/lengauer.pdf
Memory – Theories and Processes
http://brain.web-us.com/memory/theories_and_processes.htm
The Difference Between Short Term and Long Term Memory
http://www2.ntu.ac.uk/soc/bscpsych/memory/goodhead.htm
Long Term Memory
http://www.lehman.cuny.edu/depts/psychology/sailor/cognition/ltm.html
Neural Pathways to Long Term Memory
http://ahsmail.uwaterloo.ca/kin356/ltm/ltm.htm
Learning Theories
http://www.emtech.net/learning_theories.htm
Short Term Memory
http://www.sandiego.edu/~taylor/stm.html
Ohio State University: Working Memory
http://www.psy.ohio-state.edu/psy312/wm.html
Theories of Memory – Slide Show
http://psychol-carp.oswego.edu/klatsky/psy405/memoryintro/
Psychpapers.com – Memory
http://search.psychpapers.com:9000/cgi-bin/query?mss=psychpapers&q=memory
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