Filed under: tarareidtopless.com
constructing phytosanitary irradiation facilities in Mexico mainly to
help keep the Mexican fruit fly from spreading into the north of the
country. We have been approached by customer groups who would like to
use the technology to eliminate anthracnose and other fungus deseases
that limit shelf life in Mexican papaya. At this point we are interested in an overview of the effects of low dose irradiation on common Papaya deseases and a recommended dose to handle anthracnose and optimize shelf life.
Arved Deecke
phytosan S.A. de C.V.
Scientia Agricola
Print ISSN 0103-9016
Gamma radiation in papaya harvested at three stages of maturation
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-90162004000200004&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en
"Papaya is a fragile, perishable fruit, highly accepted worldwide. To keep the quality of papaya from harvest to the consumers, conservation techniques are often used; among them is the application of gamma irradiation. The objective of this work was to evaluate gamma irradiation in papayas harvested at three degrees of maturation, in order to increase shelf life. Papayas were harvested in perfect quality conditions and selected by skin coloration into three distinct degrees of maturation: maturation 0, or beginning of yellow coloration; maturation 1, yellow stripes more developed, and maturation 2, one third yellow. Half of them were irradiated with 0.75 kGy, while the other half became control treatment. They were analyzed in four periods of conservation, which were 1 DAI (days after irradiation refrigerated at 11 ± 1°C), 14 DAI, 14 DAI + 3 DRT (room temperature at 24° ± 2°C) and 14 DAI + 6 DRT. The papaya maturation degree at harvest did not influence the radiation effect. Irradiation maintained firmness of papaya and, therefore, delayed ripening; modified the green color of papaya to a lighter, more intense tone, which determined more homogeneity in the development of the skin's yellow color (greater values of L* and croma). There was no effect of irradiation in papaya weight loss, occurrence of diseases, croma of flesh color, pH and total soluble solids contents."
Irradiation Free Food Hawaii
http://www.21stcenturyhawaii.com/environment/organizations/norad/
FOOD IRRADIATION
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/rockingham/fcs/leadertraining/foodirradiation.html
APLICATION OF IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY FOR FOOD INDUSTRY
http://www.kaeri.re.kr/food/english/frame/newbody/body_3/1_3/intro3.htm
About the spice industry but makes mention of papaya:
http://www.spizes.com/SpiceOnline/Irradiaton/Irradiation.asp
Standards
http://www.sirim.my/techinfo/catalogueonline/Subject/13.280.html
Q&A on Irradiation
http://www.nclnet.org/foodsafety/questions.htm
http://www.netactivist.dk/food_E11.htm
http://www.organicconsumers.org/irrad/Philippinesfruits.cfm
Maybe these will help.
One helpful source would be associated with the "Hawaiian Pride" electron beam irradiator treating Papaya for several years now.
Arved
* The maximum irradiation dose for papaya in Mexico is 2.50 KGy and in the United States, it's 1.00 KGy: http://www.iaea.org/icgfi/ (go to database and then search by food, ie. papaya)
"MEXICO 5 UNCONDITIONAL 07.04.95 2.50" (KGy)
"USA 1,2 UNCONDITIONAL 18.04.86 1.00" (KGy)
* The Internaltional Consultive Group on Food Irradiation website seems to be valuable: http://www.iaea.org/icgfi/
* According to this document, shelf life can indeed be extended, through irradiation, for papaya:
FOOD IRRADIATION TODAY
by O.P. Snyder and D.M. Poland; 1995
Hospitality Institute of Technology and Management St. Paul, MInnesota
http://www.hi-tm.com/Documents/Irrad.html
"Not all fresh produce is suitable for irradiation. The shelf life of mushrooms, potatoes, tomatoes, onions, mangoes, papayas, bananas, apricots, strawberries, and figs can be extended with low-dose irradiation with no loss in quality. However, the quality of some foods (some citrus fruits, avocados, pears, cantaloupes, and plums) is actually degraded by irradiation."
* This document provides specic dosage levels and refers to tropical fruits and papaya specifically at one point: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
7 CFR Parts 305 and 319 RIN 0579-AA97
Irradiation Phytosanitary Treatment of Imported Fruits and
Vegetables
AGENCY: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/news97/fr000526.txt
"The first calculated estimates of doses to provide probit 9
security against fruit fly adult emergence were made by Balock et al.
(1966). The probit 9 estimate of the irradiation dose that would prevent the emergence from fruit of adult Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), varied from 206 Gray in papaya to 280 Gray in a combination of eight different fruits."
*Another irradiation dose level reccomendation in regard to papaya specifically:
From the Federal Register Online via GPO Access
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
7 CFR Part 318
http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/14mar20010800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/2003/03-2681.htm
"...abiu, atemoya, carambola, litchi, longan, papaya, rambutan, and sapodilla to be moved interstate from ... had proposed a minimum ionizing irradiation dose of 250 Gy..."
*A document from the Australia-New Zealand Food Authority on the irradiation of tropical fruits, including specific dosages (PDF format):
Application A443
Irradiation or Tropical Fruits- Breadfruit, Carambola, Custard Apple, Litchi, Longan, Mango, Magosteen, PAPAYA and Rumbitan http://www.sustainable.wellington.net.nz/Campaigns/Food_Irradiation_2002/Action%20for%20Environment%20Submission.pdf
* This is a document on the irradiation of mangoes, but it includes the excerpted information on doses for papaya as well:
Health Canada
IRRADIATION OF MANGOES:
Summary of Submission Process
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/food-aliment/fpi-ipa/e_mango_irradiate01.html
?The effects of irradiation depend on the dose absorbed. Low doses (up
to 1 kGy) inhibit sprouting in tuber, bulb and root vegetables,
inhibit the growth of asparagus and mushrooms, and delay physiological
processes (ripening, etc.) in such fruits as banana, mango, and
papaya. Medium doses (1 to 10 kGy) extend the shelf life of
commodities, eliminate spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, and
improve the technical properties of food. Lastly, high doses (10 to 50
kGy) can be used for industrial sterilization and decontamination of
certain additives or ingredients (Morrison 1992, ICGFI 1994, OTA 1985,
Kader 1986)"
* Article on Irradiation that includes a table of recommended dosages for different types of foods:
Access Science
Food irradiation
http://www.accessscience.com/server-java/Arknoid/science/AS/ResUpdates/2000/YB_001270_frameset.html?searchtext=irradiation;
"Fruits and vegetables FDA 1986 max. 1.0 KGY - Insect disinfestation; maturation delay"
"Irradiation can be used for fruits and vegetables to prevent overripening or sprouting as well as to eliminate infesting insects and microorganisms. In Japan, which bans chemical sprout inhibitors, potatoes are irradiated on a commercial scale to ensure availability throughout the year. In the United States, fruits from Hawaii can now be marketed in other states provided that they are irradiated to disinfest them of fruit flies, including the Medfly. An especially successful application is the irradiation of strawberries to prevent mold formation and to extend the refrigerated storage time to about 3 weeks. Mushrooms have also been irradiated."
* Another U.S. government document on papaya irradiation doses:
From the U.S. Government Printing Office via GPO Access
http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/14mar20010800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2002/janqtr/7cfr318.13-4f.htm
"Approved irradiation treatment. Irradiation, carried out in
accordance with the provisions of this section, is approved as a
treatment for the following fruits and vegetables: Abiu, atemoya,
carambola, litchi, longan, papaya, rambutan, and sapodilla."
*
General provisions for food irradiation
From the U.S. Government Printing Office via GPO Access
http://squid.law.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/get-cfr.cgi?TITLE=21&PART=179&SECTION=25&TYPE=TEXT and
http://squid.law.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/get-cfr.cgi?TITLE=21&PART=179&SECTION=26&TYPE=TEXT
* Discussion of 2-DCB and Palmitic Acid: (may be related to irradiation in papaya)
http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/li/commcodx.htm
"Numerous studies conducted since 1990 have identified 2-DCB as a unique irradiation byproduct of palmitic acid at doses as low as 0.5 kGy. These studies have identified 2-DCB in numerous types of food, including beef, pork, lamb, chicken, eggs, mangoes, papayas, cheese, and freshwater, seawater and anadromous fish., In fact, 2-DCB, which has never been found in any non-irradiated food, is so readily identifiable as a unique irradiation byproduct of palmitic acid that it is commonly used as a marker for irradiated food ¾ a byproduct that has been shown to persist in food up to 13 years.
Palmitic acid is ubiquitous in foods, appearing in pronounced quantities in virtually all types of meat (including fish and shellfish), vegetables, fruit, grains, dairy products and vegetable oils. Palmitic acid also appears in pronounced quantities in dozens of ready-to-eat foods, including sauces, pizzas, baked goods, snack foods and many other types of food.[16"
* Maybe a bit off topic- but I thought you may be interested in this:
Food irradiation
J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:246-253
http://www.eatright.org/Public/Other/index_adap0200.cfm
"Consumer performance in the marketplace supports the results of attitudinal surveys (27). Mangoes labeled as irradiated sold successfully in Florida in 1986. In March 1987, irradiated Hawaiian PAPAYAS, available in a 1-day trial in Southern California, outsold the identically priced nonirradiated counterpart by greater than 10 to 1. Irradiated apples marketed in Missouri were also favorably received. Record amounts of irradiated strawberries were sold in Florida in 1992 and irradiated strawberries, grapefruit, juice oranges, and other products continue to outsell their nonirradiated counterparts in a specialty produce store in Chicago, Ill."
Additional Links
A research service specific to agriculture- these may be able to help- http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=405111&fy=2002 here are some of their already completed research reports on papayas:
http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects.htm?slicetype=keyword&soi_code=1030
and
http://gsearch.ars.usda.gov/search?q=papaya&restrict=iapreview&ie=&site=iapreview&filter=0&output=xml_no_dtd&client=iapreview&lr=&proxystylesheet=iapreview&oe= and
http://gsearch.ars.usda.gov/search?q=papayas&restrict=iapreview&btnG=Go%21&ie=&site=iapreview&filter=0&output=xml_no_dtd&client=iapreview&lr=&proxystylesheet=iapreview&oe=
some excerpts:
"Some commodities can be damaged at radiation doses between 0.25 and 1.0 kilogray," McDonald said. "Generally, nonfruit vegetables like lettuce are much more sensitive to irradiation stress than fruits like apples or fruit-vegetables like tomatoes."
"According to Luscher, the Jamaican papaya industry and the Florida sweetpotato, blueberry, and longan industries have asked CDFA to allow irradiation to fulfill quarantine requirements for their produce to enter California."
Heated Air Blasts Papaya Pests
... Commercially grown papayas from Hawaii are so carefully checked ... uses humidity differently. Another approach, irradiation, requires equipment not yet available ...
www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jan98/papa0198.htm
Heated Air Blasts Papaya Pests
... Commercially grown papayas from Hawaii are so carefully checked ... uses humidity differently. Another approach, irradiation, requires equipment not yet available ...
www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jan98/papa0198.htm
ARS Project: Pests and Diseases of Papayas (403227)
... Research > Research Project: Pests and Diseases of
Papayas ... Project Number: 5320-22430 ...
www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=403227
ARS Project: Pests and Diseases of Papayas (403227) Annual ...
... development of transgenic plants with delayed fruit softening characteristics.
Transgenic papayas were produced with the potential to have delayed ripening ...
www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=403227&fy=2002
World Food Chemical News
August 9, 1995 p.10 (LexisNexis)
"...even Japanese consumer groups have threatened to boycott fruit from Hawaii if the Hawaiian fruit industry starts using irradiation on a regular basis. On July 25, the groups released a collective letter of protest against two recent shipments of Hawaiian fruit treated with irradiation at an Isomedix irradiation facility in Morton Grove, Ill., and test-marketed in U.S. stores."
Do to time constraints, I wasn't able to acquire any information from Isomedix, but you may be able to contact them and receive some information (there is a contact link on the upper right side of the page) http://www.steris.com/isomedix/center.cfm
Keeping Food Germ-Free
Mechanical Engineering
http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/march98/features/germ/germ.html
1997 Environment Hawai`i, Inc.
Volume 7 Number 10 (April 1997)
Little-Known Panel Gets Funds From State To Promote Irradiation
http://www.environment-hawaii.org/497cov.htm
ARS Subtropical Horticulture Research Station
http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/SoAtlantic/Miami/homeshrs.html
Some Pros and Cons of Food Irradiation
1997 Environment Hawai`i, Inc.
Volume 7 Number 8 (February 1997)
http://www.environment-hawaii.org/297some.htm
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Radiation Pasteurization of Food, CAST Issue Pap. 7, 1996
J. F. Diehl, Safety of Irradiated Foods, 2d ed., Marcel Dekker, 1994
J. F. Diehl and E. S. Josephson, Assessment of wholesomeness of irradiated food (a review), Acta Alimentaria, 23(2):195-214, 1994
International Atomic Energy Agency, Food Irrad. Newsl., 20(2), Suppl. A and B: Clearance of Item by Country, and Clearance of Item by Name, 1996
Marguerite Beyers, Austin C. Thomas, and Adrian Van Tonder. 1979. (- Irradiation of Subtropical Fruits. 1. Compositional Tables of Mango, Papaya, Strawberry, and Litchi Fruits at the Edible-Ripe Stage. J. Agric. Food Chem., 27(1): 37-42.
I realize the following sources are old- but it seems that much research was done on irradiation around this time:
Moutschen, J et al. 1965. Cytological effects of irradiated glucose. Radiation Botany 5: 23-28.
Chopra, V.L. et al. 1963. Cytological effects etc. Radiation Botany 3: 1-6.
Chopra, V.L. et al. 1969. Lethal and mutagenic effects etc. Mutation Research 8: 25-33.
Aiyar, A.S. et al. 1977. Studies on mutagenicity etc. Mutation Research 48: 17-28.
Berry, R.J. et al. 1965. Cytotoxic agent in gamma-irradiated carbohyd. solutions. Int. J. Rad. Biol. 9(6): 559-572
Kesevan, P.C. et al. 1966. Cytotoxic etc. human leukocytes. Current Science 35: 403-404.
Shaw, M.W. et al. 1966. Effects irradiated sucrose on human lymphocytes. Nature 211: 1254-1256.
Schubert, J. 1969. Mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of irrad. foods etc. Bulletin World Health Org. 41:873-904
Kesevan, P.C. et al. 1971. Cytotoxic and mutagenic effects etc. Radiation Botany 11: 253-281
Blood et al. 1966. Feeding of irradiated peaches etc. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 8: 247-249
Fowler, E.E. 1971. PL 422/1 - p.4 in: Disinfestation of fruit by irradiation. Proceedings of a panel on the use of irradiation to solve quarantine problems in the international fruit trade , organized by the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Atomic Energy in Food and Agriculture and held in Honolulu, Hawaii, US of America, 7-11 Dec. 1970. Vienna, IAEA 1971.
Nature 231, June 4 1977, p. 277
Google Search Terms Used:
"irradiation dosage" or "irradiation dose" and papaya
and
database research
Unfortunately, I believe I have exhausted my resources. I would imagine you will have to pay substantial money to acquire the specific dosages from an industry professional, but I hope this helps.
Regards,
Anthony (adiloren-ga)
Please narrow your answer to issues specific to the irradiation of papaya.
thanks
Arved Deecke
The literature on irradiation shows that it is approved almost worldwide in low doses for tropical fruits like papaya, as well as some meats for preserving shelf life and eradicating certain diseases common to them. I have provided you with an overview of the literature below.
This article refers to the specific ammount of irradiation safe to consumers and even refers specifically to papayas.
Food & Pack (Australia)
June 2002
HEADLINE: ANZFA votes food irradiation safe
BODY:
To date, Australians have not come face-to-face with irradiated produce, as irradiation of food was banned in Australia up until 1999. From this date, approval has been sought from ANZFA on a case-by-case basis.
The application from Surebeam Australia to irradiate tropical fruit is the second proposal concerning irradiation ANZFA has put forward for public comment since 1999. Construction is about to start on a herb, spices and herbal infusion plant at Naranga, North of Brisbane, the result of the first successful application to ANZFA in 2001.
Steritech's Narangba plant will use Cobalt-60 rods producing gamma rays to irradiate its produce, while Surebeam's application proposes to use electronic beam technology from commercially available electricity to eradicate pests like fruitfly on specific tropical fruits including breadfruit, carambola, litchi, longan, rambutan, lychee, mango, papaya and custard apples.
Irradiation involves eradicating bacteria, mould, insects and other pests through the use of gamma rays, electrical beams or X-rays.
This is done as an alternative to using chemical fumigants, pesticides, hot water dipping, and refrigeration, and works by disrupting the organic processes that lead to food spoilage and decay.
Food irradiation is currently common practice in Europe and the US where consumers are more concerned about the dangers of food-borne diseases like e-coli and BSE than possible nutritional loss due to the irradiation process.
Commenting on Australian consumer perceptions, Dr Roger Harker, scientist at New Zealand's HortResearch, said: "It eventually comes down to whether you trust science or not. I think it is almost incomprehensible that technology as safe as irradiation is rejected for so long and within the timeframe that many other technologies like microwaves and cell phones have become part of everyday life."
ANZFA has concluded that the irradiation of tropical fruits to a maximum of one kilogray from machine-sourced electron beams or x-rays, employing "Good Manufacturing/Irradiation Practices", is safe for consumers.
ANZFA commented: "In the context of an overall diet, the irradiation of the fruits would have a minimal impact on an individual's nutrient intake. If permitted, irradiated tropical fruits would require mandatory labelling to give consumers an informed choice when buying these fruits."
Some consumer groups do not agree with ANZFA's assessments, and there have been ongoing protests at the Narangba site.
Concerns over the process centre around fears that the nutritional value of irradiated products is decreased.
Friends of the Earth irradiation spokeswoman Rebecca Duffy said reasons given for food irradiation did not stack up, and that simpler, age-old techniques using better food-handling practices were just as effective.
She suggested that locally grown, locally processed and locally distributed food would reduce the need for irradiation.
ANZFA's recommendation on tropical fruit irradiation still remains subject to public consultation. Its findings refer to seven countries, including the USA and UK, where the irradiation of fruits for quarantine reasons is commonplace.
On irradiation:
"This alternative provides agency programs with another regulatory treatment method for phytosanitary certification of fruits and vegetables for import, interstate movement, and export. The use of irradiation treatment does not replace the other available regulatory treatments, but provides another regulatory option. Under this alternative, the other treatments from the limited no action alternative would continue to be available and would continue to be used for regulatory purposes. The addition of irradiation regulatory treatments to the treatment schedule for fruits and vegetables could diminish the dependence on some of the other treatments. Although irradiation treatments have been found to effectively control many pests, the high cost of setting up an irradiation facility makes it likely that only a few larger facilities will actually seek certification from APHIS to use this technique. The use of irradiation treatment for phytosanitary purposes could expand with the anticipated increases in import and export of various fruits and vegetables resulting from the continuing development of new trade agreements." http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppd/es/pdf%20files/irradea.pdf
With some foods, even the best sanitation and standard antibacterial treatments cannot ensure safety. For example, there is no guarantee that raw ground beef or raw sprouts will be free of certain harmful bacteria. These foods provide a favorable environment for bacterial growth and their production process does not include a “kill step,” such as cooking or pasteurization. For these foods, irradiation provides a “bacteria-killing” step without cooking the food. Foods may also be irradiated to extend shelf life, and imported fruits and vegetables may be irradiated to kill insect pests that might otherwise threaten U.S. agriculture. http://www.nclnet.org/foodsafety/questions.htm
There are several benefits of expanding the use of irradiation treatments to control pests infesting perishable and non-perishable commodities in the United States. First, irradiation may be useful for preventing the movement of quarantine species possibly present in trade commodities into areas where such pests are not established (USDA 1996b). From an economic standpoint, irradiation, therefore, has the potential to increase trade opportunities between nations, especially from major fruit and vegetable producing countries with high infestation rates (ICGFI 1994). Irradiation also can be used to reduce the risk of infection and disease caused by foodborne pathogens (Moy 1991). Although consumers have concerns associated with the safety of irradiation technology and its effects on food, dartsdelight: research indicates that properly irradiated food does not pose a risk to consumers (Thorne 1983, OTA 1985). In fact, the potential for human health impacts from exposure to foodborne pathogens is believed to be substantially reduced through the use of irradiation (OTA 1985, Morrison et al. 1992). http://www.epa.gov/spdpublc/mbr/casestudies/volume2/irad2.html
APLICATION OF IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY FOR FOOD INDUSTRY There are four advantages in applying irradiation to food industry. ¨Ø Long-term safe storage of food resources by eliminating parasites and contaminated organisms, and following improvement of efficiency and cost stability of agricultural products. ¨è Prevent food-borne diseases by eliminating pathogenic microorganisms in food products and substitutional use for chemical preservatives. ¨é Is an effective method for quarantine management closely related to public health. ¨ê Is an alternative for conventional food processing method and can be a method for developing new products. Health authorities in many countries have introduced stricter hygienic standards in food trade. dartsdelight: Such standards often mandate zero tolerance of pathogens such as Salmonella and Vibrio cholerae in imported food products. The U. S., for example, has already introduced zero tolerance for L. monocytogenes in ready-to-eat food in trade. All countries aim nowadays is to ensure the common safety by satisfying the standards other countries in safety aspects either biologically or chemically. http://www.kaeri.re.kr/food/english/frame/newbody/body_3/1_3/intro3.htm
Food irradiation is one means of food preservation that may not be familiar to many, but it has been in development since the early decades of the twentieth century. If properly applied, irradiation can be an effective way to treat a variety of problems in our food supply, such as insect infestation of grains, sprouting of potatoes, rapid ripening of fruits and bacterial growth. http://www.fcs.uga.edu/pubs/current/FDNS-E-3.html
Although the US food supply has achieved a high level of safety, bacterial hazards still exist in our food. The US Center for Disease Control estimates that 76 million cases of foodborne illnesses occur every year. They also estimate that one in four Americans gets a foodborne illness each year. http://communityprograms.unl.edu/html/pdf/HEF538.pdf
Nuclear News
July, 2003
HEADLINE: Irradiated food, good; foodborne pathogens, bad
BODY:
TO HUNDREDS IN the audience, Elsa Murano explained how the federal government decides to approve methods for food decontamination. Those decisions are always based on whether a technology is safe and effective. "Irradiation meets both of these criteria," said Murano, undersecretary for the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). "Irradiation has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for meat and poultry as well as for a variety of other foods. Irradiation has been endorsed and supported by many highly respected public health organizations, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the American Medical Association, and the World Health Organization . In fact, it is one of the most thoroughly researched processes in existence."
On anthracnose:
The Hindu
July 1, 1999
HEADLINE: INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO ORCHARD ROUND-THE-YEAR
Infection anthracnose and red rust starts on leaves and fruits of late-maturing varieties owing to increase in humidity. The spots due to anthracnose are round, small and necrotic, whereas in red rust pink-red velvety and irregular growth develops. Spraying of copper oxychloride 3 g/litre water during third or fourth week takes care of both diseases.
The rots caused by Sclerotium and Rhizoctonia species may spoil seedlings in nursery. Therefore sterilising the soil with formaldehyde and then covering with polythene is quite essential. Remove polythene and keep the soil open so that leftover formaldehyde is evaporated.
Mango stones should also be treated with Thiram or Captain (3 g/litre water) for 5-10 minutes. By doing this there is no chance of rotting of mango stones. More seedlings are obtained.
August
Second and third sprays of copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent) at 15-20 days should be done to protect the crop from anthracnose and red rust. If some seedlings are affected by rotting, treat the field with Captan (0.3 per cent). God drainage facility should be maintained in nursery. Weed out all grasses etc. to remove the collateral hosts of Slerotonium and Rhizoctonia species.
September
If anthracnose or red rust are not under control, repeat one more spray of copper oxychloride. Clean the field by ploughing deeply as it reduces several pathogens.
October
The incidence of die-back, phoma blight and gummosis increases by this time. Prune infected and dried branches to control die-back in nursery as well. After pruning apply copper oxychloride paste to the cut ends in nursery, whereas on grown up plants spraying of copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent) is recommended.
Spraying of copper oxychloride (3 g/litre water) controls small light brown spots of irregular to larger irregular spots of phoma blight. Similarly gummosis may be controlled by spraying copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent).
Apply 200-400 g of copper sulphate near the feeding root zone of every mango plant. Other necessary fertilisers should also be applied during October. It helps develop the vigour of the plants.
Spraying of NAA 200 ppm up to mid-October is quite necessary to keep malformation diseases under control.
Grounds Maintenance
July 1998
HEADLINE: Managing Resistance --Part I: Fungicides
BODY:
Site-specific fungicides, better known as systemic fungicides, are vital
tools for turfgrass managers. Their effectiveness and length of control are
superior to that of contacts, so they have become important tools for
managing disease in high-quality turfgrass. However, systemics have
increased the problem of resistance because fungal pathogens more easily
tolerate site-specific fungicides, which primarily act on just one
physiological mechanism in the fungus. Contact fungicides, though they
offer shorter and, in some respects, inferior control, typically affect
several sites in the fungus. Therefore, it's more difficult for fungi to
develop resistance to contacts. That's why the resistance problems we know
of almost entirely involve systemic fungicides.
The most significant problem with resistance to systemic fungicides is with
Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, the cause of dollar spot. The other pathogen with
which resistance occurs frequently is Microdochium nivale, the cause of
Microdochium patch. Resistance to systemic fungicides by Pythium
aphanidermatum, a cause of pythium blight, and by Colletotrichum
graminicola, the cause of foliar and crown-rotting anthracnose, also occur
but much less frequently.
The three major fungicide groups to which resistant strains of S.
homoeocarpa have developed are the benzimidazoles, dicarboxamides and the
demethylation inhibitors (DMIs). We have even found strains of S.
homoeocarpa with resistance to all three chemistries, which beckons the
question: How did strains with resistance to all three chemistries develop
on the golf course? The answer is quite simple: The golf-course
superintendent rotated all of the different chemistries into his fungicide
program, just as he was told to do to prevent resistance from occurring.
This would have worked fine had the individual strains of S. homoeocarpa
been able to accumulate resistance to only one fungicide. However, we now
know that strains of S. homoeocarpa can accumulate resistance genes to at
least three different chemistries. Therefore, alternating systemic
fungicides with different modes of action will not prevent resistance from
developing. It will only produce strains of S. homoeocarpa resistant to
whatever chemistries you put into the rotation.
I hope that we can eliminate from our vocabulary the phrase, "You should
practice good fungicide-resistance management and rotate fungicides with
different modes of action." Alternating different chemistries will only
select for strains with multiple resistance to whatever chemistries you use
in the rotation. You actually would be better off using one site-specific
chemistry for the control of dollar spot until resistance develops, then
switching to a product with a different mode of action.
For example, if it takes 5 years for S. homoeocarpa to develop resistance
to fungicide X and 5 years to develop resistance to fungicide Y, then using
fungicide X for 5 years and then switching to fungicide Y should give you
10 years of dollar-spot control. However, alternating fungicide X with
fungicide Y will give you resistance to both fungicides, often in less than
10 years, because S. homoeocarpa strains exist in the population with
resistance to both chemistries. You actually could lose several years of
dollar-spot control that you could have had by using the two fungicides
sequentially.
Other practices help extend the effective life of fungicides. These include
scouting and only applying a systemic fungicide when dollar spot has
reached a certain threshold level or alternating with a contact fungicide.
These techniques delay the development of resistance by reducing the number
of fungicide applications you make with the systemic fungicides. This
increases the number of years it will take to reach the critical number of
applications necessary for resistant strains to become dominant in the
population (see table, page 18).
Conventional wisdom has been to alternate systemics with contact fungicides
or combine a systemic fungicide with a contact fungicide. This way, as the
thinking goes, the contact fungicide will eliminate resistant individuals
that the systemic does not kill. The reason this doesn't work (in the way
people think it does) is that the contact cannot differentiate between the
resistant strain and the wild types-it works equally well on both. If it
cannot tell them apart, how is it going to eliminate one and leave the
other? In other words, the contact will not alter the ratio of resistant
types to wild types. Conversely, the systemic fungicide can only eliminate
the susceptible wild types from the population because the other strains
are resistant to it. Thus, the proportion of resistant types in the
population will increase due to selection by the systemic, while the
contact remains essentially neutral in its effects on the composition of
the population. Therefore, the benefit of including a contact fungicide is
not to eliminate the resistant strain (which it will not do) but to reduce
the number of systemic applications you make in any one year. This extends
the number of years you can use the systemic fungicide, but it does not
prevent the eventual development of resistance.
The fact that strains of S. homoeocarpa with resistance to three fungicide
groups exist invalidates the theory that alternating different fungicide
groups prevents resistance from occurring. You should use one class of
chemistry to manage dollar spot until resistance occurs. Do this in
conjunction with good integrated-disease-management practices and the use
of contact fungicides to prolong the useful life of the systemic fungicide.
Remember, contact fungicides will not eliminate resistant strains; they
merely extend the life of site-specific fungicides by delaying the time it
takes to reach the critical number of applications necessary for resistant
strains to become dominant.
Dr. Joseph Vargas is professor of plant pathology at Michigan State
Univeristy (East Lansing, Mich.).
The Monitor (Uganda) - AAGM
March 23, 2004
UK APPROVES GINGER DRUG, Dorothy Nakaweesi
A UK standards body has approved the use of a pesticide that treats a ginger fungal disease, which hit the crop last year.
Cupocassaro (cooper-ox chloride) was last year used to treat anthracnose, a fungal disease, which had destroyed ginger gardens.
The Institute of Market Ecology (IMO) a certifying body approved cupocassaro as the right organic pesticide to treat the fungal disease.
"The disease (was) on for the whole of last year (and) in the month of November there was no single ginger for export," said Ms Sonia Mwadime, the operations manager Amfri Farms Ltd.
Five major farmers in Mpigi district were badly affected and had to burn their fields.
This impacted on the price of ginger falling from Shs 2,000 to Shs 500 per kilogramme.
The pesticide, however, is not on the Agro Chemical Board's list of chemicals to be used in Uganda; it is not available on the local market.
Amfri Farms imported only 74 kilogrammes of the pesticide from Kenya at a cost of KShs 250 (Shs 6,000) per kilogramme.
Mwadime said that this is still little because an acre uses up 12-15 kilogrammes of the pesticide.
UK companies like that of Prince Charles; 'Dutch Originals' placed orders for ginger but nothing was delivered after the disease ruined the crop.
Mwadime said that only 50 tonnes of ginger were exported last year to German, the UK, and Holland.
Meanwhile the trial shipment of more than 20 types of fresh commodities to a direct seller in Holland is yielding success.
Mr Amin Shivji, the managing director Amfri Farms, said that hot pepper, matooke, and apple banana have attracted the new market.
On January 27 Amfri Farms shipped one tonnes of 20 different fresh commodities to Holland after getting a direct seller Mr David Kirunda.
Kirunda, a Dutch-based businessman, sold the commodities on behalf of Amfri cutting out middlemen.
The commodities included pineapples, matooke, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, okra, hot pepper, dried fruits, garden egg, avocado, dhudhi, apple banana, passion fruits, mangoes, cocoyam, chillies, cassava, tilapia and sweet pepper.
Distributed by AllAfrica Global Media. (allafrica.com)
The Hindu
April 19, 2001
HEADLINE: IDEAL FOR JUICE AND COLOURED WINE
THE INDIAN Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, has developed a high yielding grape variety, which is ideal for making juice and coloured wine making. The improved variety called, "Pusa Navrang" has bluish berries, and both the skin as well as the pulp has distinct colouration, according to the scientists who developed this variety."Pusa Navrang" is early ripening type, and it is resistant to anthracnose disease. It is basal bearing in habit. Its berries contain up to 90 per cent edible portion, 80 per cent juice and 17 per cent total soluble solids. Its juice can be used as a colour additive for making fruit and vegetable juices and also for blending with juice extracted from white varieties of grapes, according to scientists.
Grape is one of the promising horticultural crops. This highly remunerative crop needs high initial investment as well. The vines are vegetatively propagated, and trained on "pandal" or bower. Grapes can be grown in well-drained soil of neutral pH ranging between 6.5 to 7.5. In well-endowed red and black loamy soils, the crop grows luxuriously.Grape requires a warm and dry weather. Cloudy weather, high humidity, low temperature and rains during flowering and berry development are not desirable as they are congenial to the spread of diseases, say horticulturists. A spacing of 3 m by 3 m is normally recommended for high yielding varieties, and about 1,112 plants will be needed to cover a hectare.
The crop responds well to regular manuring and copious irrigation. Adequate plant protection measures should be taken to raise a crop in a healthy state.
A number of diseases attack this crop, and care should be taken to ward off the diseases. The crop needs proper training, and periodic pruning. By regular pruning the excessive vegetative growth is curtailed, and the formation of fruitful bud is induced.
The vineyard should be kept absolutely free from weeds. Shallow digging once in two to three weeks should eliminate all the unwanted vegetation.
The weeding is best done with spade by manual labour. The size and quality of the bunches can be improved by spraying with some growth regulators such as gibberelic acid at the time of flowering and berry formation.
The bunches can also be dipped in solutions containing the growth promoting substances. This would ensure bigger berries and higher yield, according to experts.
The ripe bunches have to be harvested carefully without causing any damage to berries and packed well in cardboard cartons or bamboo baskets.
The bunches are to be cut with secatures or a pair of scissors, and immature and rotten berries should be removed with a pair of scissors. Paper strips should be used to avoid damage to the berries.
CHEMICAL BUSINESS NEWSBASE
October 10, 2000
HEADLINE: PRESS RELEASE: Georgia's strawberry growers temporarily cleared to use Quadris fungicide, announces Georgia Agriculture Commissioner Tommy Irvin
BODY:
Georgia Agriculture Commissioner, Tommy Irvin, announced that Georgia's strawberry growers have been temporarily cleared to use the fungicide Quadris to control anthracnose.
The temporary clearance comes as a result of Commissioner Irvin's appeal to the US Environmental Protection Agency for an emergency exemption for the strawberry growers.
According to the Commissioner, using Quadris could result in a 40% greater marketable yield than using some of the lesser effective chemicals on anthracnose.
Out of the 300 acres of strawberries in Georgia the average losses due to anthracnose is 15%/y, which amounts to $402,000.
Growers will be able to use the fungicide Quadris through 30 Jun 2001.
Georgia Department of Agriculture, USA, Tel: +1 404 656 3689, Fax: 404 656 9380Newswire
ASIA PULSE
November 19, 1997
HEADLINE: INDIAN COFFEE INDUSTRY UNDER THREAT FROM FUNGAL DISEASES
BODY:
The Indian coffee industry which earns foreign exchange of Rs 15 billion (US$ 414 million) annually is under severe threat from scores of fungal diseases.
Leaf rust, Black rot, Pink disease, Anthracnose, Root rots, Berry blotch, Brown-eye-spot and Collar rot are the most dreaded diseases hitting the coffee plantations, according to eminent agriculture scientist Dr R Naidu.
The director (research) of the Central Coffee Research Institute, in the southern Indian state of Kerala, has carried out extensive research work in the disease cycle of important coffee disease causing pathogens and found that minor diseases like Grey blight, Black leaf, Target Leaf spot, Tip blight, Coffee blight and Soft rot also take their toll at relatively lower scales.
Among the two commercially cultivated species, Arabica (Coffea arabica) is more susceptible than Robusta (Coffea canephora), Naidu said.
Each part of the coffee plant -- leaves, branches, roots, berries and seeds -- is affected by fungal pathogens causing considerable economic loss, he said.
Western Farm Press
August 18, 2001
HEADLINE: Anthracnose studies advance integrated control program;
BODY:
Continuing studies supported by the California Lettuce ResearchBoard are accumulating data for development of an integrateddisease management program for anthracnose, which struck CentralCoast fields for a time this spring.
Steve Koike, Monterey County farm advisor, said outbreaks of thedisease, which produces lesions on inner leaves of romaine and leaflettuce, were severe in some fields from late March until early Mayand associated with cool temperatures and rain.
"It was more severe in the Santa Maria area and low tomoderate around Salinas, it eased up when the rains stopped, and ithad disappeared by May," he said.
Frank Laemmlen, Santa Barbara County farm advisor, said thedisease was found in many heads in the Santa Maria area, causingthe stripping down of heads and in some cases abandonment offields.
Noting that Quadris is approved for use against the disease onlettuce, Laemmlen said treatments must be made preventively, sinceprophylactic applications to do not prevent lesion formation andhead loss.
Anthracnose, also known as ringspot and shothole, is caused byMicrodochiuim panattonianum, a soil-borne fungus. Koike recalled itwas particularly severe and prolonged during the 1998 "ElNino" spring, but infections have been comparatively mildsince.
The CLRB has allocated funds for compiling research data onrefined spray fungicide application programs, detection, how thedisease develops, and tests for cultivars having resistance. Thiswill be used for an integrated program to manage the disease.
Due to moderate rainfall and comparatively light pressure fromthe disease this year and the preceding two seasons, Koike'sresearch plots, which were poised for any outbreak, had little toshow.
Survive in soil
Ring spot occurs in most cultivars of lettuce, and romaine isparticularly sensitive to it. It has the ability to survive in soilfor as many as four years without a lettuce host.
It is conveyed by water from sprinklers or rain splashing fromthe soil onto lettuce leaves. Another source of inoculum can bediseased, undecomposed lettuce crop residue.
Koike said studies on the fungus at the University ofCalifornia, Davis showed it has at least five races of varyingseverity against lettuce. Field and greenhouse trials demonstratedthat Folicur and Quadris effectively control the disease.
Laemmlen said varnish spot disease also caused more losses thanusual in lettuce during the spring. The disease, caused byPseudomonas cichorii, may not show symptoms until near harvesttimewhen several leaves of a head have shiny black necrotic spots,freckles, or blotches.
Little is known about how it spreads, but varnish spot isassociated with sprinkler irrigation or rains. Other than avoidingsprinkling lettuce after thinning, no management strategies areknown at this time, Laemmlen said.
PR Newswire
July 18, 2000, Tuesday
HEADLINE: Demegen Announces Resistance to Three Important Plant Fungal Diseases in Tobacco and Cotton Plants
BODY:
Demegen, Inc. (OTC Bulletin Board: DBOT), announced today that scientists at the USDA have produced tobacco and cotton transgenic plants which express a gene encoding a novel antimicrobial peptide and show high levels of resistance against three important fungal pathogens. Dr. Jesse Jaynes, Vice President of Research at Demegen, designed the synthetic peptide, D4E1, which has a broad spectrum activity against several bacteria and fungal phytopathogens. Patents assigned or licensed to Demegen cover this technology. In addition to Dr. Jaynes, the research team included Doctors Jeffrey Cary, Kanniah Rajasekaran, and Thomas Cleveland from the Food and Feed Safety Research Unit of the USDA Agricultural Research Service Southern Regional Research Center at New Orleans, LA. Results of this work were recently presented at the 6th International Congress of Plant Molecular Biology held in Quebec, Canada in June and published in the May 2000 issue of "Plant Science." The scientists reported that transgenic tobacco plants demonstrated a significant reduction in anthracnose severity caused by the tobacco pathogen Collectotrichum destructivum. Also crude protein extracts from leaf tissue of these plants reduced the germination of conidia of the fungus Aspergillus flavus by 75% and the wilt fungus Verticillium dahliae by 99%. Preliminary results from a parallel experiment with immature cottonseeds from transformed cotton plants showed a similar inhibition in vitro of germinated conidia of A. flavus and V. dahliae. A. flavus produces aflatoxin, a deadly carcinogen, in several economically important crop plants such as cotton, peanut, corn and tree nuts compromising food and feed safety. Richard Ekstrom, President of Demegen, commented: "Fungal diseases are a major problem, not only for farmers, but also for consumers when these toxins enter the food chain. We believe this novel peptide invented by Dr. Jaynes can be a significant tool in combating fungal diseases. We are looking forward to extending this research into other important crops." Demegen, Inc. is a research & development company that designs and develops novel peptides and genes to improve the health of humans, animals, and plants. Building upon interconnected technology platforms, the Company has both pharmaceutical and agricultural products in development. The medical applications include preventing or treating cancers and infectious diseases. The agricultural applications include plants that have enhanced fungal and bacterial resistance and plants with improved protein quality and quantity. Demegen's web site is www.demegen.com.
Forward-looking statements in this release are made pursuant to the "safe harbor" provisions of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Investors are cautioned that such forward-looking statements involve risks and uncertainties, including but not limited to, results of research and development, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and other regulatory agencies, increased competition, product development and commercialization, and other risks detailed from time to time in the Company's reports filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
Additional Links
http://www.epa.gov/ozone/mbr/airc/1998/124miller.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/spdpublc/mbr/casestudies/volume2/irad2.html
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sfp/fi07_met1784_en.pdf
http://www.kaeri.re.kr/food/english/frame/newbody/body_3/1_3/intro3.htm
http://www.fcs.uga.edu/pubs/current/FDNS-E-3.html
http://communityprograms.unl.edu/html/pdf/HEF538.pdf
http://209.242.196.24/cms/?pid=1001376
http://www.food-irradiation.com/basics.htm
http://www.spizes.com/SpiceOnline/Irradiaton/Irradiation.asp
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppd/es/pdf%20files/irradea.pdf
http://www.nclnet.org/foodsafety/questions.htm
Grounds Maintenance, March 1, 2004, ISSN: 0017-4688; Pg. 3, 2797 words, Understanding Fungicides, By Henry T. Wilkinson, University of Illinois & Randall T. Kane, Chicago Golf District Association
CHEMICAL BUSINESS NEWSBASE, January 8, 2001, 33 words, AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL NEWS: Captan 50 WP: 24(c) fungicide label to use on two berries
Soybean Digest, October 1999, ISSN: 0038-6014 , 569 words, Anthracnose Poses Double Threat, Kate Fisher
MONTEREY COUNTY HERALD, December 7, 1998, Monday, MN-FUNGUS, 900 words, Fungus Hits Lettuce in Salinas Valley, Calif., By Betsy Lordan
Search Strategy
Google search terms:
papaya "low irradiation dose"
Lexis-Nexis:
anthracnose and irradiation
And used additional terms to narrow the field
Thanks again for your question. I will be happy to clarify if necessary. Hope this helps.
Regards,
Anthony (adilorenga)
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